PAZHINJI PARA AT NEYYATTINKARA

PAZHINJI PARA AT NEYYATTINKARA
A SMALL STONE FOUND IN THE KANJI OF THE GREAT BHEEMA OF PANJA PANDAVAR

VALUE- ORIENTED EDUCATION

VALUE- ORIENTED EDUCATION

Value education is education in values and education towards the inculcation of values. Implicit in this definition is the conviction that value education is a universal phenomenon intrinsic to all learning and education, whether at home or in an institution. It is not. Neither teaches us to be critical thinkers or to regard ourselves as proactive beings in relation to ourselves, our community and humanity at large. Unwittingly and through habit we accept most things handed out to us by the media, the government and the polity. Unfortunately when there is so much talk about individual capabilities and potentialities, there is so little confidence on the part of the individual about his own power to make a difference. Our educational system is of little help. We are not trained to be proactive thinkers because we are told so little of the life values that are the basis for creative thinking.

Types of Values

     In a Lincoln-Douglas Debate you will need to be able to explain not only which values you are defending but what type of value you are using.   There are several methods to use to categorize the values.   These are the four most common categories that values are put into.

Universal Values:  These are values that there is nearly unanimous agreement as to the importance of them.  These would include Sanctity of human life,  Peace,  and human dignity.

Instrumental Values:  These are values that can be used to get something else.  In other words the value is an instrument which allows you to get some other things.   Examples of these would include Progress (which allows leisure time),  Freedom (Through which we can get dignity and/or self actualization),  and Knowledge(which helps us get economic prosperity, and progress).

Intrinsic Values:   Something has intrinsic worth simply because of what it is and not necessarily what it will lead to or because of its acceptance.  Some possible examples of intrinsic values would include beauty,  artistic expression,  and happiness.  We value them because they are an important aspect of life.

Prerequisite Values:  These are values that are necessary before you can get to some bigger goal.  It is similar to the prerequisite course that you must take in order to get to the more advanced course.   Some good examples of this type of value include safety (which is needed before people can even think about having anything else),  Justice (which is needed before we can move onto equality),  or the common good (which must be honored if we can ever get to a state of peace).

Paramount Values:  Think of this type of value like you think of Paramount Studios with the large mountain.  It is the value which is above all other things.  Some examples of this might include freedom (which many people have given up their lives for and see as essential to a decent life) or sanctity of life (which if we do not value or have renders everything else worthless).

Operative Values:    This type of values are the ways that we make judgments on how to live the rest of our lives.  We use these values as the overarching and guiding principles which tell us what is always right and wrong.  These are things such as Integrity, Honesty, and Loyality.

Education During Modern Period

Education During Modern Period

Education Under British Rule

First Phase (1758 – 1812) :

·                The British East India Co. showed very little interest in the education of its subjects during this period, the 2 minor exceptions being :

1.              The Calcutta Madrasah set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and teaching of Muslim law and subjects.

2.              The Sanskrit college at Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 for the study of Hindu Law and Philosophy.

·                Both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the courts of Co.

Second Phase (1813 – 1853) :

·                Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Co. by the Christian missionaries and many humanitarians, including some Indians, to encourage and promote modern education in India, The Charter Act of 1813 required the Co. to spend rupees 1 lakh annually for encouraging learned Indians and promoting the knowledge of modern science in India.

·                Two controversies about the nature of education arose during the part of this phase. They were :

·                Whether to lay emphasis on the promotion of modern western studies or on the expansion of traditional Indian learning?

·                Whether to adopt Indian languages or English as the medium of instruction in modern schools and colleges to spread western learning?

·                These 2 controversies were settled in 1835 when Lord William Bentinck (with the support of R.M. Roy) applied English medium.

·                In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give govt, employment to Indians educated in English Schools. The success was thus assured (of English education). It made good progress in the 3 presidencies of Bengals Bombay and Madras where the number of schools and colleges increased.

·                Three other developments were :

1.              A great upsurge in the activities of the missionaries who did pioneer work in quite a few fields of modern education.

2.              Establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges, which marked a beginning in professional education.

3.              Official sanction accorded to education of girls (Lord Dalhousie, in fact, offered the open support of govt.).

·                The Govt, policy of opening a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools led to the neglect of education of masses.

·                To cover up this defect in their policy, the British took recourse to the so – called ‘Downward Filtration Theory’ which meant that education and modern ideas were supposed to filter or radiate downward from the upper classes.

·                This policy continued till the very end of British rule, although it was officially abandoned in 1854.

Third Phase (1854 – 1900) :

·                The Educational Dispatch of 1854 was also called Wood’s Dispatch (after Sir Charles Wood, the then President of Board of Control, who became the first Secretary of State for India).

·                It is considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India (forms a landmark in the history  of modern education in India).

·                It rejected the ‘filtration theory’ and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.

·                Creation of Education Departments in the provinces of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, N.W. Provinces and Punjab in 1855; Organizations of Indian Education Service in 1897 to cover the senior most posts.

·                Establishment of universities of Calcutta (Jan 1857) Bombay (Jul 1857), Madras (Sep 1857), Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887).

·                Lord Ripon appointed Hunter Commission (under Sir WW Hunter) :

1.              It recommended that local bodies (distt. boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the management of primary schools.

2.              Also said that govt, should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others to be left to private hands.

Fourth Phase (1901 – 1920) :

·                Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.

·                It enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies), periodic inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation etc.

·                Criticized by nationalists for its tightening govt, control over universities.

·                In 1910, a separate department of Education was established at the Centre.

·                The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University (2 Indians: Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed.). Main recommendations were:

·                Secondary Education by a Board of Secondary education and duration of degree course be 3 yrs.

·                7 new universities were opened (Total 12 now). They were : Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow and Osmania.

·                Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.

·                University course divided into pass course and Honours.

Fifth Phase (1921 – 1947) :

·                Came under Indian control officially, as it became a provincial subject administered by provincial legislature. Thus, expansions started everywhere.

·                Increase in number of universities (20 in 1947); improvement in the quality of higher education (on recommendations of Saddler Commission); establishment of an inter – University Board (1924) and beginning of inter collegiate and inter – university activities.

·                Achievement in women’s education and education of backward classes.

MACAULLAY MINUTES

The historian, essayist, and parliamentarian Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–1859) served as a member of the supreme council of the East India Company from 1834 to 1838, where he oversaw major educational and legal reforms. The "Minute" was written as a rebuttal to those council members who believed that Indian students should continue to be educated in Sanskrit and Arabic as well as English.

        Macaulay rejected the claim of Sanskrit and Arabic on the following grounds ;

Ø  English is the key to modern knowledge.

Ø  It stands eminent among the languages of the west.

Ø  It is the language of the ruling class in India.

Ø  It would bring about renaissance of learning English.

By getting the recommendation approved in total, Macaulay could gradually anglices the whole of India. In 1845 English became the official language of the country.

Wood’s Despatch

It is known to us that the Charter of the East India Company had to be renewed after every twenty years. Accordingly while renewing the Charter in 1833 the British Parliament increased the sum of money to one million yearly from the one lakh in 1813 to be sent on education in India. When the time for renewal came in 1853, education in India had come to suffer numerous problems. The directors of the company decided to lay down a definite policy for education in India. Therefore, it became necessary to make a comprehensive survey of the entire field of education. As such, a Selection Committee of the British Parliament was set up in order to institute an enquiry into the measures for their reforms. The Committee studied the issue thoroughly and reported that the question of the Indian education should not be ignored and its development will not be in any case harmful to the British Empire. The suggestions of the Committee were favourably considered by the Board of Directors. Sir Charles Wood was the president of the Board of Control. Therefore, the declaration issued on July 19, 1854 was known as “Wood’s Despatch”, although it is said that the Despatch was written by the famous thinker John Stuart Mill, a clerk of the company at that time. On the basis of the recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch, new educational policies were formed.

EDUCATION DURING MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Education During Medieval Period

          This period covers the system of education in India from about the 10nth century AD & the middle of the 18th century ie., before the British rule.

          The period of 10th century A.D was the period of constant Muslim invasions. They established dynasties in India and some permanently settled here. But most of the rulers except Akbar the great, the Mugal emperor were not much aware of the development of education and so no interest was taken. They were engaged in constant wars to enlarge their kingdoms and strengthen their power. The scope of education was limited to religion dominated studies, strictly orthodox in nature. Thus no notable advanced or leap was happened in the field of education during this period.  Education system  during this period can be divided into two – Muslim system of Education and Hindu system of Education.

Muslim system of Education

          Medieval period witnessed a radical transformation in the Indian subcontinent. The country was invaded by various foreign rulers and several traders from around the world came and settled in the country. The tradesmen and the invaders brought with them their own cultures and intermingled with the people of the each district of the state. Besides, religion, society and culture, Education in medieval India also experienced a new perspective. The Mughal rulers came to India and established their rule. In the 11th century the Muslims established elementary and secondary schools. Furthermore, this led to the commencement of universities at cities like Delhi, Lucknow and Allahabad. Education developed with a fresh aspect during that period as there was an excellent interaction between Indian and Islamic traditions in all fields of knowledge like theology, religion, philosophy, fine arts, painting, architecture, mathematics, medicine and astronomy. 

         

However, before the advent of the Muslims in India, there was a developed system of education, but Education in medieval India was shaped with the founding of the institutions of learning. Muslim rulers promoted urban education by bestowing libraries and literary societies. They founded primary schools (Maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic prayers, and secondary schools (madrasas) to teach advanced language skills In India. Several Madrasahs were set up by Sultans, nobles, and their influential ladies. The main objective of these Madrasahs was to train and educate scholar who would become eligible for the civil service as well as performing duties as judge. Iltutmish was the first ruler to establish a Madrasahs at Delhi during the medieval rule. Gradually many Madrasahs came into being.

The system of Education in medieval India was under the control of Ulama who were in favour of curriculum as laid down by Akbar. During those days education was related to religious training. However, various subjects such as medicine, Arabic literature, grammar and philosophy were also taught. History states that Arab and Central Asian peoples brought Muslim educational models to the India in both the medieval and early modern periods. Women education in India during the medieval period was prevalent. Muslim girls of affluent families studied at home and moreover, as Persian was the court language of the period, elite boys could attend Persian schools to learn literature, history, ethics, law, administration.

Education in medieval India flourished mostly during the Mughal rule from the beginning of 1526 until the end of Mughal political presence in 1848. In the later medieval era, the British came to India and introduced English education. With the coming of the European missionaries, Western education made firm advances in the country. Various universities and thousands of colleges got affiliated and popularity of education increased in the medieval period.

Aims of Education

·                    Developing love for Muslim culture and religion.

·                    Enabling the individual for Islamic life.

·                    Preparing the students for the next world.

·                    Equipping the students for a vocation.

·                    Preparing individual for running administration.

Chief Characteristics of Muslim Education           

·         Patronage of the rules : The rules helped in the spread of education. They built educational institutions and universities. They endowed them with the funds. Big landlord also provide financial help for the spread of education. The rules patronized the mean of learning.

·         Non-state control : The rules neither claim authority over the educational institutions nor interfered with their management.

·         Religion dominated education : The whole educational system was saturated with the religious ideas which influenced the aim, the content of study and even the daily life of the pupils.  The pupil acquired knowledge as a religious obligations.

·         Countryside as the Centre of Education : By and large educational institutions flourished in the country side.

·         Provision of Various Discipline : Though education was primarily religion-oriented, it included the study of many intellectual activities like mathematics, Astronomy, Grammar and Politics. Art and Literature were also encouraged.

·         Norms of conduct : Adequate stress was laid on well –defined norms of behavior, pattern of thought, building up personality and characters of the pupils.

·         Teacher-Pupil Relationship : In the Muslim period also the teacher was respected as during the Brahminic or Buddhist period. There was intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil, although the practice of living with the teacher was not as common with the Muslim as it was in the case of Brahminic and Buddhist period.

·         Learned Teachers : Teachers took teaching for love of learning. They were held in high esteem. Prof.S.Mukerji has observed , “ Learning was prized for its own sake and as a mark of the highest human development and teaching was never handicapped by examination requirements”.

·         Individualised Instruction : Since the number of students with the teacher was limited, he paid individual attention to each students.

·         Monitorial System : Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet , still the teacher would take the help of senior and advised students to teach the younger or the junior students.

·         Discipline : Punishment were quite severe. Truants and delinquents were caned on their Palms and slapped on their face. A strange mode of punishment was to make the children hold their ears by taking their hands from under their thighs while sitting on their tiptoes.

·         Types of Institutions : Primary education was imparted in ‘Maktabs’ and secondary and high education in ‘Madrasa’.

·         Vocational Education : Provision also was made for vocational, technical and professional education. Emperor Akbar took considerable interest in education as is evident for the passage of from the Ain –in- Akbar. The passage makes interesting regarding and provides valuable information on the system of instruction that is curriculum, methods of teaching , etc.

Chief Features of Primary and Elementary Muslim Education

%  Institution of Primary Education : Primary education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’ , which   were attached with mosque or were independent of the mosque. ‘Khanquahs’  of the saints also at some places served as centers of education. Several learned men also taught students at their residence.

%  Financing of The ‘Maktabas’ : Most of the maktabas were either patronized by rulers or had endowment. They depend on the  charity of the Philanthropists.

%  Management of The Maktabas : These were run under the guidance of the learned Maulavis. They were supposed to be very pious.

%  Curriculum : Curriculum varied from place to place, but the teaching of Alphabets and the Recitation of Quran was almost compulsory. The student learned some portion of Quran by heart as this was considered essential to perform religious functions.

%  Language : Arabic and Persian Languages were mostly compulsory . For getting high govt. posts one has to learn these languages.

%  Fees : There were several village schools where the students were required to pay their instructions, not in cash but in land.

%  Orphanages : The state setup some orphanages where the children’s received education free of charges. Vast endowments were made for these orphanages.

%  Age of Admission : At the age of four years, four months and four days Maktab ceremony or Bismillah was performed to indicate the beginning of the child. This was considered as an auspicious movement for initiation or starting education.

%  Education of Sons of Nobles and Rulers : The Muslim nobles as well as rulers engaged tutors to teach their childerns at home.

%  Wide Spread  Maktabs : Almost every village had at least one Maktab. Their were several maktabas in town and cities.

%  Mode of Instruction : During this days their were no printed books for the beginners , wooden books ( Taktis) were used. The Quran after alphabetic , words were taught to students. Stress on Calligraphy – beautiful and fine handwriting was an independent element of instruction. Teaching of grammar – Grammar was taught as it was considered very valuable in teaching the languages. Books other than Quran , the Gulistan and the Bostan poems of poet Firdausi were taken up. Paharas – students also learned paharas ‘multiple of numbers’. Students memorized these while uttering collective in aloud voice.

%  Buildings : In general , the students sat on the ground in the rows under the shadows of a tree.

Madrasahs

          The madrasahs  imparted secondary and higher education. Often this Madrasahs were attached to Mosques. The term Madrasahs is derived from Arabic word ‘Dars’ ( A lecture ) and means a place where lecture is given. There was difference in principles between the Madrasahs and other mosques. When a particular room was set apart in a mosque for the teaching purpose it was called a Madrasah. Some times it was quite close to large mosque. It functioned as college of higher education where eminent scholars taught different subjects by using different methods, supplemented by discussions. Management was usually private supported by state grants and endowments. The content of the curriculum was both religious and covered a period from 10 – 12 years. Religious education comprised deep study of the Quran , Islamic law and Sufism. Literature, Logic, History, Geography, Astronomy, Astrology, Arithmetic, Agriculture and Medicine were the scholar subjects taught in Madrasa. Madrasa had attached hostels , which provide free boding and lodging.

Hindu System of Education

 Education in India had a deep impact in the upliftment and advancement of the early society and over all development. India is pregnant with a rich tradition of knowledge and learning from the earliest days of Indian civilization. There are several literary sources, such as the Vedas and other Hindu texts and scriptures, which offer references about education system of the ancient societies. The Mahabharata, some Dharma sutras, particularly those of Gautama Buddha and Apastamba and the Manu Smriti, are the principal works dealing with the system of education in ancient India. The term Upanayana signified the formal admission ceremony. By this ceremony, boys of the three upper classes namely Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya are taken to the preceptor, and initiated to Vedic study. The age-limit for this purpose, ranged between 5 and 16 for Brahmins, 6 and 22 for Kshatriyas, 8 and 24 for Vaishyas. The boy, so initiated, had to live at the preceptor`s house. The service of the preceptor was a bounden duty of the pupil. The student was to beg alms, and survive on what the preceptor apportioned for him. History of Education in Ancient India The history of education in ancient India is rather interesting and is recorded. It can be traced back to the ancient epoch. Education in Ancient India began around the 3rd century BC with elements of religious training and impart of traditional knowledge. In the ancient days, sages and scholars imparted education orally and after the development of letters the form of writing was introduced.

Palm leaves and barks of trees were used for writing and thus helped in spreading the written literature. In ancient times, women in India had the equal right to receive teaching and education. Gurukul System Education in Ancient India originated with the Gurukul system. This type of ancient Hindu school in India was residential in nature with the Shishyas or students and the Guru or teacher living in proximity within the same house. The students resided together irrespective of their social standing. However, several temples and community centers regularly took the role of schools. In addition to that ancient Indian education achieved a noticeable position in the early Vedic period, beginning in the 1200 B.C. In the Vedic days, the teaching of the four Vedas, the hymns and ritual practices were seen. The Vedas included the Sanskrit language which in turn became the language of classical learning. Besides the pronunciation of the Vedas and their implication, phonology, metrics, elementary grammar, and etymology were also taught. Though, the Vedic education was not transmitted to people of low strata, yet the Vedic system inspired the modern day education system. Role of Teachers in Ancient Indian Education The preceptors were of two classes, namely Acharya and Upadhyaya. According to ancient literary texts the Acharya performs the Upanayana ceremony of the students, teaches him the Veda along with ritualistic literature and the Upanishads. But he does not work for the pupil for livelihood whereas the Upadhyaya teaches his pupil the Veda and the Vedic literatures for livelihood. The Apastamba Dharma Sutra proclaims that though the teacher is the sole guardian of the learner during his study, yet he cannot exercise arbitrary power. It declares that the educator cannot utilise the pupil`s services for his own advantage. For the student`s offences, he can punish him in the prescribed manner but not in any way he likes. According to the Apastamba-dharma sutra, a pupil should confidentially draw the attention of the teacher to any wrongdoing of the rules, meant for him, either purposely or unconsciously. The students are allowed to control the teacher by force from wrong-doing or to get him restrained by his father etc. Mahabharata mentions that students are allowed to desert his teacher who is arrogant, ignorant of his duty and resorts to a wrong course of action. Brahmacharya System Brahmacharya summarises the sum total of the responsibilities of a student. It entails rigorous self-discipline and self-control. All sorts of pleasures and luxuries must be avoided by the pupils. Some of the occasions on which termination of study was prescribed include dusty storm by day, playing of certain musical instruments within the hearing of the pupil, cries of animals, screech of an owl, heavy downpour, rattling of thunderbolt, earthquake, eclipse, fall of a meteor, festival, certain Tithi and Nakshatras, e.g. full moon day, etc. Samavartana marks the end of a pupil`s period of study and return home.

Feature of Hindu system of Education

1.       Lack of State Support : With the advent of the muslim rule, the state support for the hindu system of education almost ended. Now it depended upon the rich people, scholars and village communities of course where there were  no muslim rules, it received sate support . gradually there remained few such areas.

2.       Religion oriented Education : The system of education by and large was dominated  by religion.

3.       The Pathashalas : Elementary education was imparted in pathashalas which existed both in villages and towns.  

4.       Building of Pathashalas : Usually pathashalas were held in the verandah or some house or under trees. There were also separated houses for pathashalas. A specific type of buildings for them did not exist premises of the temples were also used.

5.       Fees : No regular fees were charged from the students. The parents gave presents to the teachers. Students were required to render personal services to the teachers. Some times teachers also engaged themselves in part time work to supplement their income.

6.       Instructional Methods at The Elementary  Stages : there were four stages of instruction at the elementary stages. In the first stage writing letters of the alphabet on sand was taught to students. In the second stage, the teacher wrote on palm leafs and the students traced over them with red pen and charcoal ink. These could be rubbed very easily.

In the third stage , the student wrote and pronounced compound components . excessive practice was given to the students  In this regard common names of persons were used for this purpose . At this stage also the students was taught to use these words in the formation of sentence . He was also taught to make a distinction between written and colloquial languages. The students were taught the rules of arithmetic and multiplication tables repeated by the entire class. In the fourth stage students were taught to use paper for writing.

7.       Curriculum

ü  Knowledge of weight and measures was considered essential therefore, arithmetic was a compulsory subject at elementary stage. According to Dr.Krishnalal Roy ,(1989) , “the elementary school were mainly for giving instruction to these R’s and there practical application ( Such as composition of letters and business documents).

ü  Literature was included in the curriculum, real literature taste was not cultivated.

ü  Moral and religious instruction also had a secondary place in these schools.

ü  In some schools salutation of Goddess Saraswati (The Goddess of Learning) was learnt by the students.

ü  Instruction in mythology and sacred love of the Hindus was also given in some schools.