TOLMAN’S SIGN – GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING

TOLMAN’S  SIGN – GESTALT  THEORY OF LEARNING

Introduction;

                The term learning broadily speaking stands for all those changes and modifications in the behavior of the individual which he under goes during his life time . According to Henry P. Smith[1962], “Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience. “Questions have always been a subject of enquiry and investigation for psychologists and as a result a number of theories have come into existence. In place of a purely mechanical or instrumental approach  these theories emphasizes the role of purpose, insight , understanding , reasoning ,memory and other cognitive factors in the process of learning .Tolman’s sign Gestalt  theory of learning  comes under the category of “Coginitive Theories”.

Edward C. Tolman. [1886-1959]

Edward C. Tolman was born in Massachusetts, in U.S.A. qualified for Engineering Degree at the M.I.T. and perhaps would have had a distinquished career as an engineer. But for reasons  best known to him only , Tolman took interest in Psychology studied M.A. and Ph.D from Harward Univesity in Psychology. He set up a laboratory to study the  learning process of traits . Tolman is remembered  for his theory of purposive behaviourism a paradoxical combination of important elements of Behaviorism and Gestalt Psychology. His first major book is Purposive Behavior In Animals And Man [1932]

Thought And Concepts  Propagated By Tolman’s Sign Theory.

Tolman’s Sign Theory or purposive behaviourism is concerned with objective and goal directed behavior. According  to him learning consists of recognizing  the  stimuli and understanding their  meaning interaction to goals.

Molar vs Molecular Approach.

                        Tolman’s theory adopted the molar approach in the systematic  study of behavior  instead of the molecular approach adopted by the behaviorists like Watson Skinner, etc.The chief Charecteristics   of  molar behavior are ;

A] It is purposive  ie, always directed towords a goal .

B] It is not mechanical and stereotyped like a spinal reflex .

C] It constitutes a gestalt instead of the mere parts or individual “twitches” from which is supposed to    be built up.

                 Tolman emphasized studying of behavior as a complete purposeful exercise ie, achievement of the act like rat running through a maze  a man driving home to dinner , a child hiding from a stranger, etc instead of studying these acts in the form of certain sequence of muscles twitches.

Tolman distinguishes type of behavior;

A) Simple Reflex or Tropism.

B) Docile Teachable ready to learn.

             The simple reflexes like the Spinal reflex are molecular . Docile or teachable behavior is molar . Molar nature of behavior does not  break up into atomistic reflexes.

Interveining variables

                  Interveining variables lies between the independent variables (Stimulus ) and the observable dependent variables (Response) . Tolman suggested three main intervaining variables ;

A] The need system ; Depend upon the psychological deprivation or drive situation at a given moment.

B] The belief ; Value motives refer to a degree of preference of certain goal  - objects and their relative strength or value in gratification of needs.

B] The behavior spaces ; The organism moves in the space some objects attract him they have a positive valence some repel, which have negative valence. The term valence is used by Tolman in the framework of  perception.

Appetites and Aversions 

      According to Tolman these are states of agitation . The goal of appetites is “ the state of physiological     

Quiescences to be reached by commerce with the consummatory object” . The goal of aversion is “the state of physiological quisencece to be reached when the disturbing stimulus ceases to act upon the organism.

Some experiments.

                            Tolman maintained that our learning behavior is purposive . It is goal oriented rather than response oriented. We learn to expect or gain something as a result of our efforts. Tolman and his associates conducted a number of experiments to demonstrate the importance of reward expectancy in the process of learning .

                               An experiment was conducted in 1930 with a few trained rats to swim across a maze filled with water to reach the goal box . They wanted to find out Whether the animal had merely learnt a series of S-R connections or had a coginitive map of the maze. Therefore they drained the water out of the maze. Rats running instead of swimming through the maze to reach the goal box . What they animal learnt was the “Specific lay out of the maze “_ rather than a chain of S-R links. To demonstrate place learning , another set of experiments were conducted in 1940. A ‘T’ maze was used in the experiment.

The rates were trained in ‘A’ where in these had to turn to the right to get food . When tested in maze ‘B’ the rats turned to the left to get food .This only proved that the animal did not reach the goal in a fixed sequence of movements but could changed behavior according to the variations in conditions . The rats really picked up signs . These had expectancies. The coginitive map was grasped by the organism .

 INSIGT Learning Experiment

E.P- Entry point

C.P –Choice point

S.D – Short deviation

L.D –Long deviation

F.B –Food box

B1 and B2 –Bloks.

An elevated maze with three alternative paths the Food box with Entry point at one end of a long  straight path one choice point a short deviation route on one side and a long deviation route on the other side was used by Tolman in Insight learning Experiment by rats. After a few trials the rats learn to run the straight path whenever they were letin.

                                   Then Tolman placed a black at B1 cutting off the straight path but leaving both the deviation routs  open .After a few trials the rats generally moved forward straight found the block returned to the choice point and then most of the time took the shorter deviation. Then the block was moved to B2 shutting off both the straight path and the short deviation .After a few trails the generally took the straight path found the block  returned to the junction then the whole arrangements they had formed a clear ‘Coginitive map.’

                 From these experiments Tolman arrived at certain at certain concepts they are the following;

Place Learning vs Response learning

               According to Tolman in the process of learning an individual does not learn specific stimuli as mentioned by S-R theorists but tries to learn about the place where things actually lie . He does not learn a fixed movement sequence  but an overall path by visualizing a total picture of the stipulated target . He then tries to bring about changes in his movements and style of functioning in accordance with the needs of the environment.

Reward Expectancy

         In the language of Tolman ‘Reward’ is that we may have an expectation that if we go to a certain place or perform a certain act we may get something .Not getting or getting less than the expected reward may lead to disruption of behavior involving frustration. Tolman’s experiments shows the importance of reward  expectancy as a factor in learning.

Latent Learning

               Tolman also spoke of a type of learning that remains dormant for a considerable length of time in an individual before it is displayed in his behavior .The individual is capable of demonstrating its existence when suitable motivation and opportunity arise. The concept of latent learning does not essentially   require rewards or reinforcement . In a learning experiment the rate in a maze may learn to correct path with out getting food as reward or reinforcement.

Mean End Readiness

                  According to Tolman this is purely an ‘Acquired coginitive disposition’ pure in the sense it endures independently of the present motivational state of the organism . He may know where food is whether or not he is hungry . The expectation is the concrete product of the means end readiness.

Types of learning

                         Tolman distinguished six types of learning. They are;

1) Cathexis : In this type of learning an association appears to be formed between certain objectives and certain drives states. Persons belonging to cold countries where liquors are usually consumed for satisfying the thirst drive will certainly tend to seek such drinks in preferences to a simple glass of water  mainly because for them water has not been associated with the satisfaction of thirst drive.

2) Equivalence beliefs: Some times a sub goal like scoring of high grades provides the same motivation as might be provided by the main goal like winning love and appreciation, etc. The learning performed in such a condition is said to the equivalence beliefs learning.

3) Field Expectancy : In this type of learning the learning , the learning takes place on account of the expectancy of some thing occurring in one’s environment. Upon seeing a certain sign for instance one expects that a certain other sign will follow .The only reward in such a learning is the fulfilmentof the expectation.

4) Field cognition models : This type of learning involves the learning of a strategy or a way of approaching a problem solving situation by arranging the perceptual field in a specific way for application to each new field  with which one is presented.

5) Drive driscrimination : This type of learning requires the learner to identify and determine his own drive states and responds accordingly. The individual therefore has to learn the behavior needed for satisfying his thirst drive quite differently from the learning of the behavior needed to satisfy his drive for  love and affection.

6) Motor patterns : In such a learning the motor patterns are associated with or conditioned by behavior.

EDUCATIONAL   IMPLICATIONS

1. This theory highlighted what is to be taught to the child therefore should purposeful and should lead him towards some clear cut goals and objectives.

2. No learning is wasteful attempts attempt at learning are never in vain although no immediate purpose may appear to be served through such efforts.

3) Children while learning should not be forced to follow a routine  or obvious path but should be encouraged to explore as many as possible for solving the problems and performing the tasks.

4) A reward or reinforcement is not essential for every step taken towards reaching a goal or learning . We learn so many things throughout our life for which we are reinforced by no other  reward than the satisfaction of the learning itself .

5)Interveining variables like environmental surroundings drives , previous learning , age , etc play a major role in influencing the learning processes every effort should be made to take proper note of these variables in any teaching – learning situation.

CONCLUSION

Through Tolman theory changed track from Engnearing to psychology he should have no regrets . He has left an imprint in learning theories .His theory is unique in the sense that he totally transformed the earlier views of Thorndike , Skinner, Pavlov and Kohler , by introducing a number of new terms and concepts .He has raised behaviorism from its lifeless and mechanistic approach to the higher meaningful and goal directed behavior.