TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF RESEARCH

Attitude Scale and Sociometry

A researcher will require many data gathering tools  and techniques which may vary in their complexity, design, administration and interpretation. Each tool is appropriate for the collection of certain type of evidence or information. The researcher has to select from the available tools, which will provide data, he requires for the testing of the hypothesis. In some situations, he may find that the existing research tools do not suit his purpose and so he may have to modify them or construct his own. For this the researcher should familiarize himself with the nature, merits and limitations of the existing research tools, and should develop skill in the construction and use of each of these research tools.

The major data gathering tools of research may be classified broadly in to the following categories

1.     Psychological tests

2.     Inquiry forms

3.     Observation

4.     Interview

5.     Socio-metric techniques

1. Attitude Scale

Thurston defines an attitude as the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some psychological objects. By a psychological objects he means any institution, ideal, symbol, phrase, slogan, or idea towards which people can differ with respect to positive or negative affect. The concept attitude according to him denotes the sume total of a man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias, pre conceived notions, ideas, tears, threats and convictions about any specific topics”. The attitude is a personal disposition which impels and individual to react to an object situation or preposition infavourable or unfavourable ways. For any attitude there is an attitude continuum

extending from favourableness through neutral to

unfavorableness.

Various scaling techniques have led to the development of different types of attitude scales which provide quick and convenient measure of attitudes. According to Freeman, there are three assumptions up on which attitude scales are based

1.                       The scale should deal with a controversial question.

2.                       An individual feelings and insights in regard to the question will determine his responses to various statements that are made pro and corn.

3.                       The statements can be scaled regarding the degree to which they favour or are opposed to the question under

considerations.

Mainly there opinion scales and rating scales for measuring attitudes

1.   Opinion scales

Opinion scales are methods of measuring attitudes through the medium of opinions. Our attitudes towards some specific persons or object can be known by analyzing our opinion concerning them.

The main opinion scale are

1.                 Thurstone scale

2.                 Likert scale

3.                 Guttman scale

1.     Thurstone scale

Thurstone scale construction method was constituted the following items.

(1)              Collections of numerous simple opinions related to the question or subject presented

(2)              Determination of the value of the scale for these opinions by some definite determinant

(3)              Determination of the median point for every statement according to the opinions of the specialist judges.

(4)              It is necessary to see whether the question contained in the scale are in a definite order or not. The order of statement should be such that they proceed maximum to minimum acceptance.

The following precautions are observed in the construction of

Thrurstone scale construction method.

(1)              Every statement of the scale should be distinctly worded.

(2)              The number of judges is usually above hundred

(3)              The scale should comprise only those statements concerning which the judges are unanimous .

The printed scale is given to the individual inorder to find his attitude score. The statement which the  individual finds correct, he marks them correct. The median of the scale score of these statement shows the attitude score of the person.

2.  Likert scale

This scale aimed at discovering the attitudes of various human groups conscerning imperialism, internationalism etc.

The following are the items in the Likert scale construction method.

1)                      To construct many statement related to the object or problem the attitudes towards which are to be studied

2)                      To show these statements to the subject and to get them classified in to the following groups

Strongly approve, approve, undecided, dis approve,

strongly disapprove .

3)                      To award points to the above classification in the following manner

5 , 4, 3, 2,  1

4)                      To find correlation between the total score of the subject and the scores of the statement individually

5)                      To exclude those statements which bear a negligible

correlation to the score .

3.     Guttman scale

In 1941, Guttman constructed a scale to measure and study

the level of morale in American Soldiers. Guttmann’s scales possesses the following main elements

(1)                       To determine whether any statement can be shown upon

the scale or not

(2)                       To prepare scalogram to test the consistency of any statement

(3)                       To vary the questions concerning the same problem in such a manner as to determine that the opinion of the subject is consistent.

2.     Rating scales

The special feature of the rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the basis of the opinion’s and judgments of the experimenter himself.

TYPES OF RATING SCALE

1.                 Numerical  scales

One of the simplest scales to construct and easiest  to use, is the numerical rating scale. This type of tool usually consists of several items, each of which names or describes the behavior to be rated and then offers as a alternative responses a series of numbers representing points along the scale. This simple numerical scale does have face validity and therefore seems to  be widely used.

2.                 Graphic scales

If the format of the rating scale is such that the characteristic line along which are placed some verbal guides, the tool is referred to as a graphic rating scale.

It is easy to construct and easy to administer therefore it is widely used of all the specific types of rating scales, but it is less reliable measure.

3.                 Standard scale

In the standard scale approach as attempt is made to provide the rater with more than verbal cues to describe  various scale points.

Ideally, several samples of the objects to be related are included each with a given scale value which has been determined in experimental studies prior to the use of the table.

4.                 Check lists

An approach which is widely popular because it is simple to administer and still permits wide coverage in short time is the behavior check list. It contains a long list of specific behaviors which supposedly represented individual differences and rates simply checks whether the items applied. The behaviour index of individual is obtained by summing up the items which have been checked.

5.                 Forced choice scale

One of the most recent innovations in the rating scale area has been developed a forced choice technique which has been designed to overcome the major difficulties faced on with earlier techniques. In a forced choice rating the rater is required to consider not just one attribute but several characteristics all at one time. Rater is asked to select one which is most appropriate statement.

6.                 Ranking method

It is not possible that rater can accurately judge  equivalent distances at  various points along the scale. Under these conditions a ranking method which requires only that subjects who are being rated to be placed in order of each trait can be used. This approach is essential for large number of persons are to be rated.

7.                 Q-Sort

This is developed by Stephenson. It is one of the best approach to obtain a comprehensive description of an individual.

SOCIOMETRY

An Austrian psychologist by name J.L. Moreno, invented the technique of Sociometry.

‘Sociometry is the study of those aspects of the socio emotional climate in the classroom having to do with feelings of attraction, rejection, and indifference which pupils express towards, each other when faced with situations calling for interaction within the classroom.

After a few weeks of commencement of school, teacher has to conduct this test. It is not really a test like an intelligence test. It is to test the reactions of student among themselves. Within a few weeks each one would have known one another sufficiently to get close as friends or to maintain a distance. Teacher has to prepare open ended questionnaire. This could be administered quite informally in one of the class hours assuming students of almost confidentially of their responses They should be urged to be frank and forth right.

Some times students may be asked to state the names of three classmates for each question in order of preference. Students tend to be a little reserved in the beginning particularly in giving their negative choices. Tact is needed on the part of teachers to establish rapport and trust that their responses would never be leaked out. The responses are recorded in a rectangular card in which  a student could write his name at the top, write down the question no. and their choice of class fellow so that could be easly processed and tabulated. On the basis of student reactions teacher could prepare a sociometrix.

Each card could  be checked and the choice entered in the matrix in the form of tallies. Total for each student could be counted and entered. This would give a measure of acceptance or popularity for the positive responses and rejection or unpopularity for negative responses.

Sociograms

The matrix could  also be represented as a diagram called socio gram. A sociogram is a diagramatic representation of mutual choices, rejection and indifference of pupils in a classroom towards one another.

On the basis of relationship among the students in class may be classified into 4 type.

1.                 Stars : are those students in the classroom whom large no. of students are attracted or student like.

2.                 Isolates : are those students of the class whom no students of the class likes or does not make friendship with them

3.                 Mutual pairs : are those students who have the mutual attraction of liking with each other.

4.                 Chains : The mutual pairs have their liking with third or fourth students. The third and fourth have the attractions or liking with sixth or seventh students. Thus their liking  or attraction form chain of relationship among the class mates.

SOME GUIDEPOSTS IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF

SOCIOMETRY

1.                 Students in the class should be well acquainted with each other.

Sociometrix test should not be administered in the first week.

2.                 Positive teacher pupil relationship should exist.

3.                 Student responses should be kept confidential.

4.                 Students should know that results will be used positively.

5.                 No prior announcement is needed.

6.                 Directions should be clear and simple.

We must remember that Sociometry is concerned with feelings as opposed to considered judgments. Spontaneity  underlies sociometrix choice. Every member must be present on the day of the test. It should not be administered shortly after a new student has joined the class.